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28 Cassidy George, “How Charli D’Amelio Became the Face of TikTok,” New Yorker, September 5, 2020, https://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/how-charli-damelio-became-the-face-of-tiktok.
29 When Charli D’Amelio reached one hundred million followers, TikTok wrote a blog post congratulating her. “Congratulations Charli for 100M Followers, Paving the Way for Creators Everywhere,” TikTok, November 22, 2020, https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/congratulations-charli-damelio-for-100-million-followers-paving-the-way-for-creators-everywhere. Her remarkable success has been analyzed in great detail, as people attempt to understand how her content and TikTok’s For You algorithm intersect. One such video, by “Richard the YouTube Strategist,” breaks down the early posts by D’Amelio and charts which helped her take off. “How Charli d’Amelio Became Famous,” video posted to YouTube by Richard the Youtube strategist, May 7, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ks8kpjhVxVE.
30 Steven Levy, “The Untold History of Facebook’s Most Controversial Growth Tool,” Medium, February 25, 2020, https://marker.medium.com/the-untold-history-of-facebooks-most-controversial-growth-tool-2ea3bfeaaa66.
31 Kashmir Hill, “How Facebook Figures Out Everyone You’ve Ever Met,” Gizmodo, November 7, 2017, https://gizmodo.com/how-facebook-figures-out-everyone-youve-ever-met-1819822691.
32 Kashmir Hill, “Facebook Recommended That This Psychiatrist’s Patients Friend Each Other,” Splinter, August 29, 2016, https://splinternews.com/facebook-recommended-that-this-psychiatrists-patients-f-1793861472.
33 Anil Dash, “Nobody Has a Million Twitter Followers,” Anil Dash, January 5, 2010, https://www.anildash.com/2010/01/05/nobody_has_a_million_twitter_followers.
34 Julia Zappei, “Twitter Scrapping Its Suggested User List,” NBC News, November 16, 2009, https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna33964694.
35 Gerrick De Vynck, “High-Profile Republicans Gain Followers in First Weeks of Musk’s Reign,” Washington Post, November 27, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/11/27/musk-followers-bernie-cruz.
36 J. M. Berger and Jonathon Morgan, “The ISIS Twitter Census: Defining and Describing the Population of ISIS Supporters on Twitter,” Brookings, March 2015, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/isis_twitter_census_berger_morgan.pdf.
37 Renée DiResta, “Social Network Algorithms Are Distorting Reality by Boosting Conspiracy Theories,” Fast Company, May 11, 2016, https://www.fastcompany.com/3059742/social-network-algorithms-are-distorting-reality-by-boosting-conspiracy-theories.
38 Anna Merlan, “The Conspiracy Singularity Has Arrived,” Vice, July 17, 2020, https://www.vice.com/en/article/v7gz53/the-conspiracy-singularity-has-arrived.
39 Jeff Horwitz and Katherine Blunt, “Instagram Connects Vast Pedophile Network,” Wall Street Journal, June 7, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/articles/instagram-vast-pedophile-network-4ab7189.
40 Renée DiResta, “Online Conspiracy Groups Are a Lot Like Cults,” Wired, November 13, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/online-conspiracy-groups-qanon-cults.
41 With 272,000 members as of December 11, 2023. “QAnonCasualties Subreddit,” Reddit, accessed December 11, 2023, https://www.reddit.com/r/QAnonCasualties.
42 Brandy Zadrozny, “On Facebook, Anti-vaxxers Urged a Mom Not to Give Her Son Tamiflu. He Later Died,” NBC News, February 7, 2020, https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/social-media/facebook-anti-vaxxers-pushed-mom-not-give-her-son-tamiflu-n1131936.
43 Renée DiResta, “The Complexity of Simply Searching for Medical Advice,” Wired, July 3, 2018, https://www.wired.com/story/the-complexity-of-simply-searching-for-medical-advice.
44 Jeff Horwitz and Deepa Seetharaman, “Facebook Executives Shut Down Efforts to Make the Site Less Divisive,” Wall Street Journal, May 26, 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-knows-it-encourages-division-top-executives-nixed-solutions-11590507499.
45 Brandy Zadrozny, “‘Carol’s Journey’: What Facebook Knew About How It Radicalized Users,” NBC News, October 22, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/facebook-knew-radicalized-users-rcna3581.
46 Taylor Hatmaker, “Facebook Hits Pause on Algorithmic Recommendations for Political and Social Issue Groups,” TechCrunch, October 30, 2020, https://techcrunch.com/2020/10/30/facebook-group-recommendations-election.
47 Ben Collins and Brandy Zadrozny, “Facebook Bans QAnon Across Its Platforms,” NBC News, October 6, 2020, https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/facebook-bans-qanon-across-its-platforms-n1242339.
48 L. M. Sacasas, “From Common Sense to Bespoke Realities,” Convivial Society, July 12, 2022, https://theconvivialsociety.substack.com/p/from-common-sense-to-bespoke-realities.
49 In Chapter 3 of his book The Hype Machine: How Social Media Disrupts Our Elections, Our Economy, and Our Health—and How We Must Adapt (New York: Currency, 2020), computational social scientist Sinan Aral of MIT describes connections between users (networks) as the “substrate”—the foundation upon which everything else happens. On social media, whom we know and follow is connected to what we see. Just as in our village example from Chapter 1, our networks shape what we see, hear, and are potentially influenced by. That’s because the people you choose to follow or friend and the groups you choose to join, whether proactively or via a recommender system, largely determine what you’re going to see in your subsequent social media experience. Influencers, of course, with their large followings, have disproportionate reach and impact relative to “ordinary” users. But each node in the network—the followers, too, in other words—plays a role in shaping what the others see and do and, by extension, how they feel, act, and think about the world around them.
50 Chris Meserole, “How Do Recommender Systems Work on Digital Platforms?,” Brookings, September 21, 2022, https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/how-do-recommender-systems-work-on-digital-platforms-social-media-recommendation-algorithms.
51 Smriti Bhagat et al., “When Do Recommender Systems Amplify User Preferences? A Theoretical Framework and Mitigation Strategies,” Meta, August 6, 2021, https://research.facebook.com/blog/2021/8/when-do-recommender-systems-amplify-user-preferences-a-theoretical-framework-and-mitigation-strategies.
52 Akos Lada, Meihong Wang, and Tak Yan, “How Does News Feed Predict What You Want to See?,” Meta, January 26, 2021, https://tech.facebook.com/engineering/2021/1/news-feed-ranking.
53 Casey Newton, “How YouTube Perfected the Feed,” The Verge, August 30, 2017, https://www.theverge.com/2017/8/30/16222850/youtube-google-brain-algorithm-video-recommendation-personalized-feed.
54 Emma Lurie, Dan Bateyko, and Frances Schroeder, “TikTok Just Announced the Data It’s Willing to Share. What’s Missing?,” Stanford Internet Observatory Cyber Policy Center, February 24, 2023, https://cyber.fsi.stanford.edu/io/news/tiktok-just-announced-data-its-willing-share-whats-missing.
55 Emily Baker-White, “TikTok’s Secret ‘Heating’ Button Can Make Anyone Go Viral,” Forbes, January 20, 2023, https://www.forbes.com/sites/emilybaker-white/2023/01/20/tiktoks-secret-heating-button-can-make-anyone-go-viral.
56 The acknowledgment that a combination of an opaque algorithm and incentivized employees was shaping content consumption on the platform was met with considerable concern, in part because TikTok’s parent company was founded in China and remains partially Chinese-owned; some prominent congressmen and tech policy voices harbor concern about that power being abused by an authoritarian government. For more discussion of this, see Kari Paul and Johana Bhuiyan, “Key Takeaways from TikTok Hearing in Congress—and the Uncertain Road Ahead,” The Guardian, March 23, 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/mar/23/key-takeaways-tiktok-hearing-congress-shou-zi-chew. Full committee hearing: Scott Duke Kominers and Liang Wu, “Threads Foreshadows a Big—and Surprising—Shift in Social Media,” Harvard Business Review, July 13, 2023, https://hbr.org/2023/07/threads-foreshadows-a-big-and-surprising-shift-in-social-media.
57 Kelley Cotter, “Playing the Visibility Game: How Digital Influencers and Algorithms Negotiate Influence on Instagram,” New Media & Society 21, no. 4 (December 14, 2018), https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1461444818815684.
58 Brendan Koerner, “Watch This Guy Work, and You’ll Finally Understand the TikTok Era,” Wired, October 19, 2023, https://www.wired.com/story/tiktok-talent-factory-ursus-magana-creator-economy.
59 Drew Harwell, “How TikTok Ate the Internet,” Washington Post, October 14, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/interactive/2022/tiktok-popularity.
60 Ryan Broderick, “Your Least Favorite Gross Viral Food Videos Are All Connected to This Guy,” Eater, May 11, 2021, https://www.eater.com/2021/5/11/22430383/why-are-gross-viral-food-videos-popular-rick-lax-facebook-watch.
61 Ashley Mears, “Hocus Focus: How Magicians Made a Fortune on Facebook,” The Economist, July 28, 2022, https://www.economist.com/1843/2022/07/28/hocus-focus-how-magicians-made-a-fortune-on-facebook.
62 Horwitz and Seetharaman, “Facebook Executives Shut Down Efforts to Make the Site Less Divisive.”
63 This is the title of one of my favorite books: Charles Mackay, Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds (1841; reis. New York: Noonday Press, 1932).
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